大众传播理论

出版时间：2004  出版社：清华大学出版社  作者：（美）巴兰（Raran S.J.）,（美）戴维斯（Davis D.K.）  译者：曹书乐  
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内容概要

这是一部全面而权威的大众传播理论专著，也是一部对国内师生面言因独辟蹊径而值得细读的经典教材。书名虽然叫做“大众传播理论”，却并非我们常见的那种分门别类地介绍各种理论的集合体；而是采取历史视角，并注两大传播理论学派（社会/行为理论和批判/文化理论）的起源和演进的传播理论史。    丰富的名词解释、案例、参考资料、概括性表格、重要学者及著作列表使本书成为一本优秀教材。它被国外多所高校用作传播学专业学生的高级读本。

作者简介

斯坦利·巴兰博士同任美国布赖恩特学院传播系主任、教授。主要研究方向为；大众传播的经验主义/定量研究，大众媒介与社会的现实建构，媒介素养技能的形成与发展。主要著作有：《无线电通迅绪论：技术的会聚》，《大众传播绪论：媒介素养和文化》，《电视批评：解读、写作

书籍目录

总序导读前言第一部分 大众传播理论介绍  第一章 介绍    关于媒倮的三个问题    大众传播的定义和再定义    媒介理论发展的五个时期    大众社会与大人文化时期    大众传播的科学研究视角的出现    有限效果范式的出现    文化批评理论：对有限效果范式的挑战    适中效应视角的出现    正在进行的论战    理论探索    批判与思考    重要学者及其著作  第二章 大众传播理论    综述    科学与人类行为    分裂的社会科学    理论的定义    大众传播与理论    小结    理论探索    批判与思考    重要学者及基著作第二部分 大众社会与大众文化时期  第三章 媒介产业的崛起和大众社会理论    综述    起源    黄色新闻业的兴起    大众媒介发展与衰落的循环    大众社会的批判与关于媒介的大论战    大众社会理论的假说    关于媒介的大论战的兴起    大众社会理论的早期例子    礼俗社会和法理社会    机械团结和有机团结    当代的大众社会理论    小结    ……第三部分 有限效果论的兴盛和衰退第四部分 当代大众传播理论——寻求共识、面对挑战中英人名对照表参考文献大众传播编年表

编辑推荐

　　丰富的名词解释、案例、参考资料、概括性表格、重要学者及著作列表使《大众传播理论》(基础争鸣与未来第3版翻译版)成为一本优秀教材。它被国外多所高校用作传播学专业学生的高级读本。

用户评论 (总计117条)

•   书很新，也是正版，装订和纸张都很不错，适合在上面大书大写。内容虽然是按照历史进程来编排的，但是整个美国主流的大众传播理论讲得比较流畅透彻，但是在很多关键的概念和理论上的解释还稍显不足，可能需要进一步的阅读相关的原著来进行知识的补充。翻译整体上还是不错的，但是我觉得有些句子的处理还比较拗口，也许看了英文原句还会觉得更容易理解吧。书很好，但是不能止步于此。
•   不错，对大众传播理论阐释的比较好的教材。
•   这是一本翔实的传播学教材，里面有大量的名词解释，非常有助于对知识点的理解；
  本书以大众传播学的历史发展为主线，详细阐述了大众传媒的五个发展阶段，以此来揭示现代社会新媒介发展中的问题、影响与趋势，
  每一章后面的小结也利于对文章内容的把握，
  课后还有引人深思的现实问题，
  作者还推荐不少有益的网络站点，都是非常有帮助的。
•   大众传播理论一书一共六张缺页，都在第四章
•   作为传播学的另一本经典著作，它比起《人类传播理论》来更容易理解。
•   适合学习西方的传播理论，文本比较难读懂，但多读几遍就能领悟啦
•   因为2010年参加研究生考试才购买的这本书，但是在通读和精读后发现收获良多。
  
  外国学者的文科研究更扎实，而不是像中国某些所谓的学者一样，照搬照抄，复制粘帖，甚至是拼凑或者请人代笔写出用来评职称或者挣钱的学术著作。这本书的作者理论基础扎实，表达也深入浅出，案例结合历史与现实，是一本难得的传播学佳作！
  
  建议多次阅读，每次阅读后可能都会有新的发现！
•   书的内容涉及一些大众传播学的基本概念，虽然书里也另列这些概念，但是如果没读过基础的教材的话，比如传播学教程，理解这本书还是有一定的难度的，建议先看基础，再把这本作为拓展，加深了解，读着挺有趣儿的。
•   大众传播学的必读书籍，是很好的传播学教材。很及时
•   我所看过的传播学著作中自认为最优秀的一部。。。。
  按照历史发展的顺序编排，每一个理论都会有个小框总结其优缺点。
  编排很用心，受益匪浅啊。。。
•   这本书找了很久，终于在当当买到了，书写的非常好，就是刚开始看的时候有点累，建议是有一定传播基础的人看合适，或者看过传播基础类的书再看，受益匪浅
•   与中国内地的教科书不同，这本书没有那么理论，而是略有趣味性的进行了解释，内容很丰富，适合新闻学的同学进行参考阅读，但是如果应试的话就不推荐了，还是推荐郭庆光的《传播学教程》
•   作为传播学基本理论的书 它是不错的选择 归纳全面 分析到位
•   这本翻译的还不错，和国内的就是不一样，人家理论来龙去脉都有了，还有逻辑。
  考研参考书，加油啊！
•   这本是考研用的书籍 跟中国人写教材的思维不大一样 但是有趣多了 相比国内很多新闻传播学的传统教材要好很多
•   正在准备考研，复旦大学新闻学推荐了这本教材，觉得相当不错。尤其是在理论外，作者还将很大一部分心思放在思路的引导上，受益匪浅啊！
•   刚刚看完这本书，的确很锻炼人，书里面的理论相当丰富的.
  但悲剧的是，考试推荐书目换啦
  不过，开卷有益，总是可以有收获的。
•   多读些理论，总会受益的，否则就是书到用时方恨少啊~~
•   用精练的语言阐述理论，赞！
•   买这本书的人大多是专业学新闻传播学的吧，我也是，书本身不算艰深，但对于非专业人士来说有些难懂。
•   很值得一看的传播学书啊，，很经典，内容也超级实用
•   这本书还是非常系统的。就是太厚太沉，拿着非常不方便。不过从内容上来讲，很适合传播学入门学者了解传播学的发展史
•   传播学研究必读，不错
•   很不错，对研究传播学很有帮助
•   一直没有写。看了一半了。考研必备书籍之一吧，根据历史过程来写的，还是很有系统性的，看起来除了因为国内外差异而导致的混乱之外，其他都还好，可以理解。翻译很有趣，或者原文很有趣，很多成语的使用让我忍俊不禁。非专业人士或许觉得有些没必要了，但是考研或是专业相关的可以参考一下。很有条理，个人感触。关于当当哦，书很新，看着也像是正版。大约就是这些，到货时间也不错，三天整。
•   可以帮助完善国内教材观点较旧的缺点
•   很好的一本书，对传播学很有用，质量也不错，还有什么疑问的话可以联系我，QQ：121056639
•   经典教材，好用实在。
•   是用来了解传播学的好书
•   对传播学一窍不通 学起来很吃力
•   基本理清了传播学的脉络
•   帮助我把传播学知识梳理清楚了，有豁然开朗的感觉
•   传媒的经典读物，只是没有英文原版的，翻译的有些逻辑不足
•   脉络很清晰，还有注释。每章节还有参考文献，这为我们提供了大量的资料来源，价格也适中，总之，很喜欢！
•   极为推崇这本书，看了好几遍，值得收藏！
•   看看总归是有益的，清华翻译的不错，本书只有一条人类大传的脉络线索，拎出来就基本看完了。很难啃的书，购买要有心里准备。。但是极致推荐
•   清华大学出版社的这套书都是很值得看下的。
•   值得一读的书~
•   值得一读值得一读值得一读值得一读值得一读值得一读值得一读
•   印刷质量很棒，书翻译得有点拗口，但是多读几遍感觉收获很大！
•   质量不错，翻译的东西么，有时是比较费解一点。总体还不错。
•   翻译的书 ，不同的思维。很不错
•   很优秀的一本书
•   这本书很经典的的！
•   这本书对于传媒专业考研的同学很有帮助
•   还没看，挺厚的一本，虽然封面颜色比较暗淡，但是内容更重要
•   买家的送货速度挺快，最重要的是书的质量很好！！
•   我为了跨专业考研买来看看
•   内容很详细，专业书籍，搞活动买的，价格满意
•   这是老师推荐的一本书，还没看，不过对这个还蛮感兴趣的就买了
•   这本书应该是重在理解的。因为语言的差异，不是太好懂，不过已经非常不错了。
•   本书适合研究生阅读，
•   很好的一本书，讲得很详细，而且很容易懂，不会太枯燥，给个好评。
•   这本书内容不错，知识点很多很全，很有条理性。非常适合考研用的。
•   这本书不太好懂哦。
•   这本书比较有手感，纸张也不错，有收藏价值。
•   据我购买的时候所知，这本书在**没有
•   由于要求买这本书，所以才从当当买的，送货很及时，而且质量也很好。赚到了，呵呵
•   很期待的书，终于买到了
•   老美的书 就是比较难懂哇
•   装订印刷还不错
•   感觉不错，质量听靠谱
•   书本很新，快递很给力
•   考研需要的 不错
•   需要的好书。真好。
•   在准备考研的时候买的，比制定参考书写的有意思，不错
•   快递很快，服务很好，书的质量也不错
•   适合中级学习
•   考研。 一切都是为了考研。 一切都是为了未名湖
•   推荐，有许多有用的知识，收获多~
•   特别增长知识
•   很不错的书。速度很快很不错的书。速度很快很不错的书。速度很快很不错的书。速度很快很不错的书。速度很快很不错的书。速度很快
•   确实不错。包括内容
•   质量大家可以放心~
•   配送及时~质量，正品行货~
•   非常好！！考试必备！！！
•   考试的参考书目，难读啊
•   书也好，送货也给力
•   书的手感很好，还没开始看，但是内容应该不错吧
•   我还没看 但充满期待 书之所为书 有我需要学习的地方 我不盲目 很满意
•   很好很强大，很有启发性
•   好书 外国人的思想真的狠不一样的
•   还会来买的
•   考研的必读之书
•   看了一章，觉得很稀饭、因为是考研用的，看得很仔细
•   书的质量无可挑剔，送货也比以前快点
•   刚收到书，质量很好，看起来不错！
•   很好。。喜欢
•   很全，不错！查起来简明、方便！
•   昨天下午刚订的，今早就收到了。速度真挺快！
  书的质量跟我在书城看到的正版是一样的，手感很好！所以绝对的正版！
  以后还要继续选购！
•   书很好不错，很受益
•   质量也不错，当当唯一的缺点就是不像**那样用泡沫包装，这样容易损坏。
•   第一次从当当上买书，感觉非常好，送货快，书的质量也很好，比**上买的感觉好嘻嘻！
•   只是书到了需要自己去取，要去别的校区，比较麻烦，如果真正做到“货到顾客手中”就更好了
•   很抱歉，这么久才评论，很好的书，质量很好！
•   清華大學有一系列傳播學的翻譯書籍書寫得挺好的，只是翻譯還是有點拗口。不過，也很不錯了。學傳播的可以看一下。
•   为考研买的，就不喜欢也得喜欢。不过的确是不错啦
•   书真的是超级好，无缺页，装订精细，正版，送货也很快！
•   　　The Effects of the Media on Audience Groups
  　　【Abstract】
  　　 Media effect has always been a hot topic of communication study, and there have been a considerable number of theoretical achievements. However, in the new-media Era, the effects of both traditional and new media in practice deviate from the existing theories to some extent. My final paper will first introduce the four authoritative theories on media effects, including their arguments, examples, evidence, academic status, and criticisms they receive. Then I will analyze different theories to find their weaknesses and strong points. A comparison will be presented. In the end, I’ll discuss the change of media effect in the new-media Era by discussing some hot topics.
  　　
  　　【Key Word】
  　　Communication Theory Effects Research Mass Media Audience Groups New-media
  　　
  　　1. The History of Media Effect Research and Theory
  　　The development of thinking about media effects is said to have a ‘natural history’, in a sense of its being strongly shaped by the circumstances of time and place and influenced in an interview way by several ‘environmental’ factors, including the interests of governments and law—makers, changing technology, the events of history, the activities of pressure groups and propagandists, the ongoing concerns of public opinion and even the findings and the fashions of social silence. The four phases are all-powerful media, theory of powerful media put to the test, powerful media rediscovered, negotiated media influence.
  　　There is a surprisingly long tradition of effects-based audience research, and all have in some way sought to examine the effects of media output on their audiences, and all have admitted that the media influence their audience in some way. The deciding difference lies in how big the influence is. To explain the theory more clearly and add some of my own understandings, each one I would like to introduce a representative specifically.
  　　
  　　A. All-Powerful Media
  　　The first phase: from 1900 until the late 1930s,
  　　The media, where they were well developed, were credited with considerate power to shape opinion and belief, to change habits of life and to mould behavior actively more or less according to the will of those who could control the media and their contents. Such views were based not on scientific investigation but on observation of the enormous popularity of the press and of the new media—film and radio which intruded into many aspects of everyday life as well as public affairs.
  　　In Europe, the use of media by advertisers, by war propagandists and by dictatorial state in the inter-war years and by the new revolutionary regime in Russia all appeared to confirm what people were already inclined to believe—that the media could be immensely powerful.
  　　 Behaviorism: the Stimulus-Response Model
  　　Before the father of behaviorism John B. Watson exhibited his genius, several researchers have made distinguishing contributions to the development of behaviorism. One of the pioneers, the Russian biologist Ivan Pavlov, has been famous for his experiments with dogs. He proposed the concept of conditioned response, which means creating a connection between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned response by studying. By the way, though Pavlov became known for his pioneering work on behaviorism and thus received the Nobel Prize in medicine, he refused to consider himself as a psychologist but a biologist. Watson developed Pavlov’s theory and argued that “all human action is merely a conditioned response to external, environmental stimuli”. After Watson, there were Thorndike’s Law of Effect and B.F Skinner’s Operant Conditioning. The three psychologists’ most famous experiments are respectively associated with Father Christmas, cats and doves. I acquire these from Professor Zhang Zhiyong’s course An Introduction to Psychology from Department of Psychology besides reading the reference,
  　　
  　　 Magic Bullet Theory
  　　By the 1920s, the Freudianism and behaviorism were combined into a more simple theory. That is the Magic bullet theory. It thinks media penetrate people’s minds and instantly create effects. Magic bullet theory assumed what. People were viewed as powerless to consciously resist manipulation. No matter what their social status or how well educated people are, the magic bullet of propaganda penetrate their defense and transform their thoughts and actions. Lots of researchers, especially from the early 1900s through the 1950s, believe that mass media are so powerful that no audience can resist the propaganda.
  　　The most frequently cited example is Orson Welles' notorious 1938 broadcast describing the invasion of New Jersey by Martians, which we have been familiar with in both journalism and communication classes. It was used as an evidence of how vulnerable and ignorant the audiences were, but critics of the magic bullet theory didn’t agree this event provided the conclusive proof about the power of media. That’s the Limited p
  　　
  　　B. Theory of Powerful Media Put to the Test
  　　The second phase: Its beginning is well exemplified in the research literature by the series of Payne Fund studies in the United States in the early 1930s until the early 1960s.
  　　Over the course of time the nature of research changed, as methods developed and evidence and theory suggested new kinds of variable which should be taken into account. Initially, researchers began to differentiate possible effects according to social and psychological characteristics; subsequently they introduced variables relating to intervening effects from personal contacts and social environment, and latterly according to types of motive for attending to media.
  　　It was not the media had been found to be without effects; rather, they were shown to operate within a pre-existing structure of social relationships and a particular social and cultural context. These factors took primacy in shaping the opinions, attitudes and behavior under study and also in shaping media choice, attention and response on the part of audiences.
  　　 Lazarsfeld’s Two-Step Flow Theory
  　　After 1940, American empirical researchers began to challenge the previous theoretical work on media effect based on behaviorism. Several experiments were made, such as Lazarsfeld’s famous survey on Erie County, Ohio in 1940, interviewing more than 3000 people on the election in their homes. Nearly one out of every three households in the county was visited by an interviewer. The most persuasive evidence of this theory is that Lazarsfeld’s results directly contradicted mass society media.
  　　In 1943 his research team did another interview on more than 700 housewives about their consumer decisions in Decatur, Illinois, He used a “snowball” sampling technique in order to finally “identify and study those who had been named by others as opinion leaders”.
  　　More than ten years after the Decatur research, in 1955, Lazarsfeld’s work Personal Influence was published, by which Lazarsfeld formally advanced his two-step flow theory. The theory is the idea that messages pass from the media, through opinion leaders, to opinion followers. In two-step flow, people who screen media messages and pass on those messages that help others share their views. Lazarsfeld argued that the most important influence of mass media was to reinforce a choice that had already been made and there was little evidence that media converted people. In Lazarsfeld’s opinion, the heavy user/early deciders act as gate-keepers—screening information and only passing on items that would help others share their views. Lazarsfeld chose the item “opinion leaders” to refer to these individuals.
  　　
  　　C. Powerful Media Rediscovered
  　　The third phase: from 1980s to now.
  　　In the theory, the ‘no effect’ myth was due to a combination of factors, most notably: it concentrates on a limited range of effects, especially short-term effects on individuals (for instance, during elections), instead of on broader social and institutional effects, and weight given to two publications—Katz and Lazarsfeld’ Personal Influence (1955) and Klapper’s The Effects of Mass Communication (1960). Nevertheless, they concede that the myth was influential enough to close off certain avenues of research temporarily.
  　　There are two reasons why some researchers are reluctant to accept the ‘no (or minimal) effect’ theory. One is they think the theory gives no justification for an overall verdict of ‘media impotence’. The other reason for the reluctance is the arrival of television in the 1950s and 1960s as a new medium with even more power of attraction (if not necessarily of effect) than its predecessors and with seemingly major implications for social life. There, we must introduce the limited effects theory originated from Lazarsfeld.
  　　 Limited Effects Theory
  　　The exact definition of limited effects theory is when media do seem to have an effect, that effect is “filtered” through other parts of the society, for example, through friends or social groups. Originated from Lazarsfeld’s work, the limited effects theory calls attention to key generalizations about the role of media in society. Some of the important are as follows, and these are also why the magic bullet theory didn’t agree this event provided the conclusive proof about the power of media.
  　　a) Media rarely directly influence individuals. People are sheltered from direct propaganda manipulation by their family, friends, coworkers and social groups. This is very different from the magic bullet theory and behaviorism that viewed people as isolated atoms.
  　　b) There is a two step flow of media influence.
  　　c) By the time people become adults, they have developed strongly held group commitments such as political party and religious affiliations that individual media messages are powerless to overcome.
  　　d) When media effects do occur, they will be modest and isolated.
  　　
  　　D. Negotiated Media Influence
  　　The fourth phase: begin in to late 1970s.
  　　Work on media texts (especially news) and audiences, and also on media organizations, brought about a new approach to media effects which can best be termed ‘social constructivist’. In essence, this has been the development of a view of media as having their most significant effects by constructing meanings and offering these constructs in a systematic way to audience, where they are incorporated (or not), on the basis of some form of negotiation, into personal meaning structure, often shaped by prior collective identifications.
  　　
  　　2. Comparison Between the Theories
  　　We can divide the four theories into two groups by how they recognize the power of media. One is for the powerful mass society media, such as behaviorism, magic bullet theory, Lasswell’s political propaganda theory; the other is for limited effects of media, representative by Lazarsfeld. Because the magic bullet theory is a combination of Watson’s behaviorism and Freudianism, and the limited effect theory develops directly from Lazarsfeld’s work, so this section is going to discuss the strong points and weaknesses of Watson’s behaviorism and Lazarsfeld’s two-step flow theory as representatives.
  　　As we can see from above, the most obvious weaknesses of behaviorism is its simplistic structure. It assumes “that other social structures, such as the opinions of family and peer group members, had no effect on audiences was naive.” Therefore, the criticism later also focused on the overly unmediated and direct relationship between the media and their audience.
  　　Perhaps it was because the simple but obvious explanation provided by behaviorism that made behaviorism accepted in such a huge range and in fact, it laid the foundation of media theory in the age of propaganda. With the widespread of mass media, Watson’s theory in advertisements was inevitably used by political propagandists such as Nazi Joseph Goebbels, a master propagandist. One of his remarks is “It would not be impossible to prove with sufficient repetition and psychological understanding of the people concerned that a square and a circle.” He stated, “What after all are a square and a circle? They are mere words and words can be molded until they clothe ideas in disguise”, quoted in Thomson. (1977, p.111) So here comes one the most important theories in effect study. It derived from Lasswell’s 5W model (Who said What to Whom through What Channel and has What Effect), and was highly developed by Nazi and Soviet.
  　　
  　　 Propaganda
  　　Propaganda means no-holds-barred use of communication to propagate specific beliefs and expectations. For the amazingly great power of propaganda, it appeared likely that a Nazi or Communist leader would seize power before public education had a chance to succeed. So Western propaganda theorists abandoned idealism in favor of strategies they regarded as realistic and based on scientific face. Propaganda must be resisted by might be a silver lining to this cloud. If we could find a way to harness the power, then maybe we will have a tool that could help build a better social order. This was the promise of what came to be called white propaganda—a strategy that used benign propaganda techniques to fight “bad” propaganda and promote objectives those elites considered good. After WWII ended, these white propaganda techniques provided a basis for the development of promotional communication methods that are widely used today in advertising and public relations.
  　　As U.S theorists studied propaganda, they came to differentiate black, white, and gray propaganda. Black propaganda involved deliberate and strategic transmission of lies—its use was well illustrated by the Nazis.
  　　White Propaganda involves intentional suppression of potentially harmful information and ideas, combined with deliberate promotion of positive information or ideas to distract attention from problematic events.
  　　Gray Propaganda means transmission of information or ideas that might or might not be false. No effort is made to determine their validity. The propagandist simply made no effort to determine their validity and actually avoided doing so—especially if dissemination of the content would serve his or her interest. Today we find the attribution of labels like “black” and “white” to the concepts of bad and good propaganda offensive.
  　　
  　　Now it seems that the behaviorism and the propaganda theory are so naive while compared with Lazarsfeld’s two-step flow theory, but it did provide a scientific approach to both psychology and communication study: experiment. Many years later, behaviorism is still an unavoidable topic in the field of communication theory. The strengths of Lazarsfeld’s two-step flow theory are the focus on the environment, the stresses on opinion leaders. It’s based on inductive rather than deductive reasoning, and effective challenges the simplistic notion of direct effect.
  　　Critics said that there were some variables that were not measured in Lazarsfeld’s model. First, surveys can’t measure how people actually use media on a day-to-day basis. That is how the later theory of gate-keeping and silence spiral came out Second, surveys are a very expensive and cumbersome way to study people’s use of specific media content such as their reading of certain news stories or their viewing of specific television programs. Third, the research design and data analysis procedures Lazarsfeld developed are inherently conservative in assessing the media’s power. Fourth, subsequent research on the two-step flow has produced highly contradictory findings.
  　　
  　　3. View the Media Effects on Audience Groups in the New-Media Era
  　　With the advance of opening up and the development of new media technology, we are lucky to observe the collapse (may be a little exaggerate) of many traditional media. In many controversial news events, as we have seen in Qian Yunhui Case happened in Zhejiang Province, Wukan Event in Guangdong Province, China’s orthodox media’s public trust is losing at a increasingly speed. It raised such questions: Why our people tend to doubt the state media? Did the magic bullet theory fail in nowadays China? Perhaps the limited effects theory can provide a convincing explanation.
  　　First, with the help of modern social networks and Microblog, such as Facebook, Twitter, in China Weibo and Renren, citizens can get more information from the Internet other than traditional television and newspaper. There is no reason to enforce the audience to believe what the government propagandizes. Moreover, when the propaganda by the state media deviates from common sense too much, the changelessly brutal reality becomes bitter irony to the propaganda. The bullet is no longer magic, but a joke.
  　　I remembered once in our class, one of my classmates said: “Our government cancelled the agricultural taxes and thus the farmers in fact lead a relatively good life. They believe the national media very much.” I can’t help refuting immediately and my words are somewhat extreme. But what I want to express is the reality remains difficult for our farmers. For example, one family owns five acres on average, while the rice price is lower than half yuan, adding the expense of seeds, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, the net revenue for the family is just 3000 yuan.
  　　The situation turned better in recent years, but the gap between rural and city is widening in fact. When farmers get in touch with the Internet and found the whole revenue of their family is worthless than an iPhone4, how can the magic bullet still work?
  　　Second, there is a two-step flow of media influence. It means the media will only be influential when the opinion leaders who guide others are influenced first. Because these opinion leaders are sophisticated, critical media users, they are not easily manipulated by media content. They act as an effective barrier to media influence.
  　　The opinion leader Han, who owns the biggest readership in China, once wrote in his blog: “The psychological counseling is of no use. When I see the beauties cater to the rich, the rich to the officials, the officials to the big boss, and the boss has Lin Zhiling in his arms, how on the earth can the psychological counseling work? People envy workers in Foxconn with social welfare, the punctual wage, the arranging accommodation, and be paid for overworking. My classmates either rely on their family or their husband. There are even no real inspiring stories for hundreds of miles around. That’s the reality of many Chinese youngsters.” A netizen said: “when some news events happened, I would rather see how Han remarked.” This netizen unconsciously demonstrated the premise for media effect.
  　　Third, by the time most people become adults, they have been belong to groups. Individual media messages are powerless to overcome them. Especially in the new-media era, the block of the opponents’ information is no longer effective.
  　　
  　　4. Special Circumstances in China
  　　All the communication theory we discussed above is the research of Western world, especially America. However, the situations are very different in China. This section is going to discuss the circumstances in China and test the theory we have already known. Let’s start with an interesting and confusing phenomenon we have raised before: why the citizens tend to doubt the credibility of government?
  　　One popular explanation is that the government likes to lie and with time passing on, fewer and fewer citizens believe in it. That seems to be rather strong. But in the Qian Yunhui Case, the Huiqing government later accepted the investment by volunteer civil lawyers. In the end, investigation team recognized the government’s conclusion to be true. But to the officials’ surprise, the civil lawyers were immediately accused by netizens of taking bribes from the government. What happened recently in Wukan Event is somewhat the same. The secretary of Chaowei wanted to clear the event by holding a news conference, but it turned to worsen the situation. His speech was partly-quoted and be sent online intentionally, triggering more dissatisfactions. Block the news and the rumors will come into being; but when the official accept your inspection and if the conclusion agrees with the previous, the representatives will be doubted. Seeing from the government’s aspect, it is really a dilemma.
  　　I think the problem lie on the freedom of speech.
  　　As we know, we do not have complete freedom of speech China. One of the most typical examples is that when some bad events happen, the government will block the scene and no media is allowed to report. In the journalism class, we learnt that when the Wenchuan Earthquake happened, the Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the CPC banned the concerning reports in a very short time. When they found it impossible to copy Tangshan’s report model, the Propaganda Department ordered news organizations to report on how wonderful the relief efforts are. When the news media is blocked, the citizens have no choice but to guess, so the rumors have the soil to grow. In the 7.23 Event, the news media are also forbidden to report the accident at the first time until the Microblog exhibited its power.
  　　So the former communication theory failed in such events. The new model for media, audience and government has become:
  　　Accident happens—Government blocks the scene
  　　—Audience has no way to know the truth—Rumor emerges.
  　　—Domestic media is forbidden to report—Foreigner media reports the event in their perspective and interests.
  　　From above we can see the deciding step is the “Government blocks the scene”, this not only gives rise to rumor, but also hands over the voice on the problematic event.
  　　
  　　I think the biggest consideration in our leaders on media is “what kind of news can the society hold”. But on one hand our audience’s capability of receiving news has already been enhanced through the new media, on the other hand, even if the block of news continues, the foreigner media will report it. In the new-media, we can safely guarantee that the block could only make the situation worst, as the Wukan has proved.
  　　In the end, the theories of media effect on audience not only give us many exciting experiments and conclusions, but also have an inspiration on China today’s media reform.
  　　
  　　
  　　Reference (including the footnotes)
  　　1. Baran S.J, Davis D.K, Mass Communication Theory: Foundation, Ferment, and Future, Third Edition. 2004(1).
  　　2. Burton G, Media and Society: Critical Perspectives, 2007(1).
  　　3. Taylor, Lisa, (1999) “The effect of Media on Audience Groups”, Media Studies, Blackwell.
  　　4. Han, Youth, Taiwan: New classic graphic communication Co., LTD, 2010(1).
  　　5. Mcquail, Mass Communication Theory: an introduction. London: Sage Publication Ltd, 1998.
  　　6. Xujing, An introduction to communication theory, Beijing: Tsinghua Press, 2007.
  　　
•   　　我实在觉得翻译帝不怎么样，干嘛你就非得要按照英文句子顺序来说话呢，不可以按照我们中国人说话的方式译吗？很吃力诶。看了十页我都划出好几个云云雾雾的句子了。Oh，my god。比如介绍的第5页，更简单的说法来自历史学家琼.雅各布斯.布伦伯格，而且是特别写给那些涉足社会理论的，“科学在本质上，自然而然地镶嵌着文化。”这句是怎么起承转合的，好像不通了。其实是不是这个意识？更简单的说法来自历史学家琼，“科学从本质上是植入在文化中的。”，这种观点主要是针对社会科学来讲的。